LECTURE THREE
Major Movements and Traditions
The
development of English literature (not literatures in English) can be
identified under five major historical movements. These movements,
otherwise known as periods or ages are determined by the prevailing
language or ruler or world philosophy or literary technique or prominent
writer(s), or any best thing that characterizes the age or movement. It
must be emphasized, however, that there is no clear-cut demarcation
between one stage and the other. The historical literary ages have been
suggested to include, The Anglo-Saxon (Oral tradition)
Epic Poetry
Form and Significance
Epic
poetry is known to be one of the earliest literary forms, and indeed
one that has attracted discussions right from the days of Homer up to
this present day (Brass 1989). These various discussions at different
times and in different places show that the epic is a long narrative
poem that is conceived on a grand scale. It treats a serious theme that
has both national and international significance. This theme is
presented in a style that is elevated. In treating its theme, it centres
its narration on the celebration of the achievements of one or more
heroic personage of history or tradition.
It presents characters
of high position in a series of adventures (Brass 1989). These
adventures form an organic whole in two ways (i) through their relation
to the central figure who has heroic and superhuman proportion: and (ii)
through their development of episodes that are important to the history
of a nation or race.
The works of Homer and Virgil are the main
examples of classical literary epic while "Beowulf and Paradise Lost"
are the most obvious examples of English epic. In Africa, some of the
popular epics include Ozidi. Sunjata and Chaka
(Excerpts from) Beowulf
(Anon)
The Coming of Grendel
A powerful monster, living down
In the darkness, growled in pain, impatient
As day after day the music rang
Loud in that hall, the harp's rejoicing
Call and the poet's clear songs, sung 5
of the ancient beginnings of us all, recalling
The Almighty making the earth, shaping
These beautiful plains marked off by oceans.
Then proudly setting the sun and moon
To glow across the land and light it; 10
The corners of the earth were made lovely with trees
And leaves, made quick with life, with each
Of the nations who now move on its face. And then
As now warriors sang of their pleasure:
So Hrothgar's men lived happy in his hall 15
Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend,
Grendel, who haunted the moors, the wild
Marshes, and made his home in a hell
Not hell but earth. He was spawned in that slime,
Conceived by a pair of those monsters born 20
Of Cain, murderous creatures banished
By God, punished forever for the crime
Of Abel's death. The Almighty drove
Those demons out, and their exile was bitter.
Shut away from men; they split 25
Into a thousand forms of evil spirits
And fiends, goblins, monsters, giants,
A brood forever opposing the Lord's
Will, and again and again defeated.
Then, when darkness had dropped, Grendel 30
Went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors
Would do in that hall when their drinking was done.
He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting
Nothing, their dreams undisturbed. The monster's
Thoughts were as quick as his greed or his claws: 35
He slipped through the door and there in the silence
Snatched up thirty men, smashed them
Unknowing in their beds and ran out with their bodies,
The blood dripping behind him, back
To his liar, delighted with his night's slaughter. 40
At daybreak, with the sun's first light, they saw
How well he had worked, and in that gray morning
Broke their long feast with tears and laments
For the dead. Hrothgar, their lord, sat joyless
In Herot, a mighty prince mourning 45
The fate of his lost friends and companions,
Knowing by its tracks that some demon had torn
His followers apart. He wept, fearing
The beginning might not be the end. And that night
Grendel came again, so set 50
On murder that no crime could ever be enough,
No savage assault quench his lust
For evil. Then each warrior tried
To escape him, searched for rest in different
Beds, as far from Herot as they could find, 55
Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept.
Distance was safely; the only survivors
Were those who fled him. Hate had triumphed.
So Grendel ruled, fought with the righteous,
One against many, and won; so Herot 60
Stood empty, and stayed deserted for years,
Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, king
Of the Danes, sorrow heaped at his door 65
By hell-forged hands. His misery leaped
The seas, was told and sung in all
Men's ear: how Grendel's hatred began,
How the monster relished his savage war
On the Danes, keeping the bloody feud
Alive, seeking no peace, offering
No truce, accepting no settlement, no price 70
In gold or land, and paying the living
For one crime only with another. No one
Waited for reparation from his plundering claws:
That shadow of death hunted in the darkness,
Stalked Hrothgar's warriors, old 75
And young, lying in waiting, hidden
In mist, invisibly following them from the edge
Of the marsh, always there, unseen.
So mankind's enemy continued his crimes,
Killing as often as he could, coming 80
Alone, bloodthirsty and horrible. Though he lived
In Herot, when the night hid him, he never
Dared to touch king Hrothgar's glorious
Throne, protected by God - God,
Whose love Grendel could not know. But Hrothgar's 85
Heart was bent. The best and most noble
or his council debated remedies, sat
In secret sessions, talking of terror
And wondering what the bravest of warriors could do.
And sometimes they sacrificed to the old stone gods. 90
Made heathen vows, hoping for Hell's
Support, the Devil's guidance in driving
lheir affliction off. That was their way,
And the heathen's only hope, Hell
Always in their hearts, knowing neither God 95
Nor His passing as He walks through our world, the Lord
Of Heaven and earth; their ears could not hear
His praise nor know His glory. Let them
Beware, those who are thrust into danger,
Clutched at by trouble, yet can carry no solace. 100
In their hearts, cannot hope to be better! Hail
To those who will rise to God, drop off
Their dead bodies and seek our Father's peace!
So the living sorrow of Healfdane's son
Simmered, bitter and fresh, and no wisdom 105
Or strength could break it: that agony hung
On king and people alike, harsh
And unending, violent and cruel, and evil.
In his far-off home Beowulf, Higlac'sº
Follower and the strongest of the Greats – greater 110
And stronger than anyone anywhere in this world -
Heard how Grendel filled nights with horror
And quickly commanded a boat fitted out,
Proclaiming that he'd go to that famous king,
Would sail across the sea to Hrothgar, 115
Now when help was needed. None
of the wise ones regretted his going, much
As he was loved by the Geats: the omens were good,
And they urged the adventure on. So Beowulf
Chose the mightiest men he could find, 120
The bravest and best of the Gears, fourteen
In all, and led them down to their boat;
He knew the sea, would point the prow
Straight to that distant Danish shore.
Then Wulfgar went to the door and addressed 125
The waiting seafarers with soldier's words:
"My lord, the great king of the Danes, commands me
to tell you that he knows of your noble birth
And that having come to him from over the open
Sea you have come bravely and are welcome. 130
Now go to him as you are, in your armor and helmets,
But leave your battle-shields here, and your spears,
Let them lie waiting for the promises your words
May make."
Beowulf arose, with his men
Around him, ordering a few to remain
With their weapons, leading the others quickly
Along under Herot's steep roof into Hrothgar's
Presence, the silvery metal of his mail shirt
Gleaming with a smith's high art, he greeted
The Dane's great lord:
"Hail, Hrothgar!
Higlac is my cousin and my king: the days
Of my youth have been filled with glory. Now Grendel's
Name has echoed in our land: sailors
Have brought us stories of Herot, the best 145
Of all mead-halls, deserted and useless when the moon
Hangs inskies the sun had lit,
Light and life fleeing together.
Ms people have said, the wisest, most knowing
And best of them, that my duty was to go to the Danes' 150
Great king. They have seen my strength for themselves,
Have watched me rise from the darkness of war,
Dripping with my chains, chased
All of that race from the earth. I swam 155
In the blackness of night, hunting monsters
Out of the ocean, and killing them one
By one; death was my errand and the fate
They had earned. Now Grendel and I are called
Together, and I've come. Grant me, then, 160
Lord and protector of this noble place,
A single request! I have come so far,
O shelter of warriors and your people's loved friend,
That this one favor you should not refuse me -
That I, alone and with the help of my men, 165
May purge all evil from this hall. I have heard,
Too, that the monster's scorn of men
Is so great that he needs no weapons and fear none.
Nor will I. my lord Higlac
Might think less of me if I let my sword 170
Go where my feet were afraid to, if I hid
Behind some broad linden shield: my hands
Alone shall fight for me, struggle for life
Against the monster. God must decide
Who will be given to death's cold grip. 175
Grendel's plan, I think, will be
What it has been before, to invade this hall
And gorge his belly with our bodies. It he can.
If he can. And I think, if my time will have come,
There'll be nothing to mourn over, no corpse to prepare 180
For its grave: Grendel will carry our bloody
Flesh to the moors, crunch on our bones
And smear torn scraps of our skin on the walls
Of his den. No, I expect no Danes
Will fret about sewing our shrouds, if he wins. 185
And if death does take me, send the hammered
Mail of my armor to Higlac, return
The inheritance I had from Hrethel, and he
From Wayland. Fate will unwind as it must!"
Then Hrothgar's men gave places to the Geats, 190
Yielded benches to the brave visitors
And led them to the feast. The keeper of the mead
Came carrying out the carved flasks,
And poured that bright sweetness. A poet
Sang, from time to time, in a clear 195
Pure voice. Danes and visiting Geats
Celebrated as one, drank and rejoiced.
There was the sound of laughter, and the cheerful clanking
Of cups, and pleasant words. Then Welthow,
Hrothgar's gold-ringed queen, greeted 200
The warriors, a noble woman who knew
What was right, she raised a flowing cup
To Hrothgar first, holding it high
For the lord of the Danes to drink, wishing him
Joy in that feast. The famous king 205
Drank with pleasure and blessed and blessed their banquet.
Then Welthow went from warrior to warrior,
Pouring a portion from the jeweled cup
For each, till the bracelet-wearing queen
Had carried the mead-cup among them and it was Beowulf's 210
Tum to be served. She saluted the Geats'
Great prince, thanked God for answering her prayers,
Por allowing her hands the happy duty
Of offering mead to a hero who would help
Her afllicted people. He drank what she poured, 215
Edgetho's brave son, then assured the Danish
Queen that his heart was firm and his hands
Ready:
"When we crossed the sea, my comrades
And, I already knew that all
My purpose was this: to win the good will 220
of your people or die in battle, pressed
In Grendel's fierce grip. Let me live in greatness
And courage, or here in this hall welcome
My death!"
Welthow was pleased with his words,
His bright-tongued boasts; she carried them back 225
To her lord, walked nobly across to his side.
The feast went on, laughter and music
And the brave words of warriors celebrating
Their delight...
Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty 230
Hills and bogs, bearing God's hatred,
Grendel came, hoping to kill
Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot.
He moved quickly through the cloudy night,
Up from his swampland, sliding silently 235
Toward that gold-shinning hall. He had visited Hrothgar's
Home before, knew the way
But never before nor after that night,
Found Herot defended so firmly, his reception
So harsh. He journeyed, forever joyless, 240
Straight to the door, then snapped it open,
Tore its iron fasteners with a touch
And rushed angrily over the threshold.
He strode quickly across the inlaid
Floor, snarling and fierce: his eyes 245
Gleamed in the darkness, burned with a gruesome
Light. Then he stopped, seeing the hall
Crowded with sleeping warriors, stuffed
With rows of young soldier resting together.
And his heart laughed, he relished the sight, 250
Intended to tear the life from those bodies
By mourning; the monster's mind was hot
With the thought of food and the feasting his belly
Would soon know. But fate, that night, intended
Grendel to gnaw the broken bones 255
Of his last human supper. Human
Eyes were watching his evil steps,
Waiting to see his swift hard claws.
Grendel snatched at the first Geat
He came to, ripped him apart, cut 260
His body to bits with powerful jaws.
Prank the blood from his veins and bolted
llim down, hands and feet; death
And Grendel's great teeth came together,
Snapping life shut. Then he stepped to another 265
Still body, clutched at Beowulf with his claws,
Grasped at a strong-hearted wakeful sleeper
- And was instantly seized himself, claws
Bent back as Beowulf leaned up on one arm.
That shepherd of evil, guardian of crime, 270
Knew at once that nowhere on earth
Had he met a man whose hands were harder;
His mind was flooded with fear - but nothing
Could take his talons and himself from that tight
Hard grip. Grendel's one thought was to run 275
From Beowulf, flee back to his marsh and hide there:
This was a different Herot than the hall he had emptied.
But Higlac's follower remembered his final
Boast and, standing erect, stopped
The monster's flight, fastened those claws 280
In his fists till they cracked, clutched Grendel
Closer. The infamous killer fought
or his freedom, wanting no flesh but retreat,
Desiring nothing but escape; his claws
tad been caught, he was trapped. That trip to Herot 285
Vas a miserable journey for the writhing monster!
The high hall rang, its roof boards swayed,
And Danes shook with terror. Down
The aisles the battle Except angry.
And wild. Herot trembled, wonderfully 290
Built to withstand the blows the struggling
Great bodies beating at its beautiful walls;
Shaped and fastened with iron, inside
And out, artfully worked, the building
Stood firm. Its benches rattled, fell 295
To the floor, gold-covered boards grating
As Grendel and Beowulf battled across them.
Hrothgar's wise men had fashioned Herot
To stand forever; only fire,
They had planned, could shatter what such skill had put 300
Together, swallow in hot flames such splendor
Of ivory and iron and wood. Suddenly
The sounds changed, the Danes started
In new terror, cowering in their beds as the terrible
Screams of the Almighty's enemy sang 305
In the darkness, the horrible shrieks of pain
And defeat, the tears torn out of Grendel's
Tautthroat, hell's captive caught in the arms
Of him who of all the men on earth
Was the strongest.
That mighty protector of men
Meant to hold the monster till its life
Leaped out, knowing the fiend was no use
To anyone in Denmark. All of Beowulf's
Band had jumped from their beds, ancestral
Swords raised and ready, determined
To protect their prince if they could. Their courage
Was great but all wasted: they could hack at Grendel
From every side. tring in Opel
puth for his evil soul, but their points
Could not hurt him, the sharpest and hardest iron 320
Could not scratch at his skin, for that sin-stained demon
Had bewitched all men's weapons, laid spells
That blunted every mortal man's blade.
And yet his time had come, his days
Were over, his death near; down 325
To hell he would go, swept groaning and helpless
To the waiting hands of still worse fiends.
Now he discovered - once the afflictor
of men, tormentor of their days - what it meant
To feud with Almighty God: Grendel 330
Saw that his strength was deserting him, his claws
Bound fast, Higlac's brave follower tearing at
His hands. The monster's hatred rose higher,
But his power had gone. He twisted in pain,
And the bleeding sinews deep in his shoulder 335
Snapped, muscle and bone split
And broke. The battle was over, Beowulf
Had been granted new glory: Grendel escaped,
But wounded as he was could flee to his den,
His miserable hole at the bottom of the marsh, 340
Only to die, to wait for the end
Ofall his days. And after that bloody
Combat the Danes laughed with delight.
He who had come to them from across the sea,
Bold and strong-minded, had driven affliction 345
Off. purged Herot clean. He was happy,
Now, with that night's fierce work; the Danes
Had been served as he'd boasted he'd serve them; Beowulf,
A prince of the Geats, had killed Grendel,
Ended the grief, the sorrow, the suffering 350
Forced on Hrothgar's helpless people
By a bloodthirsty fiend. No Dane doubted
The victory, for the proof, hanging high
From the rafters where Beowulf had hung it, was the monster's
Arm, claw and shoulder and all. 355
And then, in the morning, crowds surrounded
Herot, warriors coming to that hall
From faraway lands, princes and leaders
Of men hurrying to behold the monster's
Great staggering tracks. They gaped with no sense 360
Of sorrow, felt no regret for his suffering,
Went tracing his bloody footprints, his beaten
And lonely flight, to the edge of the lake
Where he'd dragged his corpselike way, doomed
And already weary of his vanishing life. 365
The water was bloody, steaming and boiling
In horrible pounding waves, heat
Sucked from his magic veins; but the swirling
Surf had covered his death, hidden
Deep in murky darkness his miserable 370
End, as hell opened to receive him.
Then old and young rejoiced, turned back
From that happy pilgrimage, mounted their Hardhooved.
Horses, high-spirited stallions, and rode them
Slowly toward Herot again, retelling 375
Beowulf's bravery as they jogged along.
And over and over they swore that nowhere
An earth or under the spreading sky
Or between the seas, neither south nor north,
Was there a warrior worthier to rule over men. 380
(But no one meant Beowulf's praise to belittle
Hrothgar, their kind and gracious king!)
Example of an African oral epic
IZIBONGO: Zulu Praise-Poems.
Shaka
imgwana son of Ndaba!
Ferocious one of the Mbelebele bridge,
Who raged among the kraals,
So that until dawn the huts were being turned upside down.
5 He who beats but is not beaten, unlike water,
Axe that surpasses other axes in sharpness;
Shaka, I fear to say he is Shaka,
He is the chief of the Mashobas.
10 He of the shrill whistle, the lion;
lle who armed in the forest, who
Amed in the forest, who is like a madman,
The madman who is in full view of the men.
He who trudge wearily the plain going to Mfene;
The voracious one of Senzangakhonu.
15 Spear that is red even on the handle.
The open-handed one, they have matched the regiments.
They were matched by Noju and Ngqengenye,
The one belonging to Ntombazi and the other to Nandi;
20 Brought out by the white one of Nandi.
They called him to Mthandeni despising him, they said
We cannot compete in dancing with this Ntungwa from up country,
Whereas he was going to annihilate Phakathwayo in the return competition.
The small beast of consent flying like a flag,
25 Why did the ferocious one consent?
Why has he accepted Godolozi,
Thinking that he was on this side at Nandi's place?
Whereas he was far away at little Ntombazi's place?
The sun that eclipsed another with its rays,
30 For the present it eclipse the one of Mthandent.
There are two words for which I am grateful,
I am grateful for that of Mpandaba and that of Ndungenkomo,
Saying "The string of beads does not fit the neck'
Please inquire from the people of Zinkondeni,
35 They said he who is frustrated they would stab at Hlohloko,
The curdled milk got spilt and dish got broken.
The joke of the women of Nomgabhi,
Joking as they sat in a sheltered spot,
Saying that Shaka would not rule, he would not become chief,
40 Whereas it was the year in which Shaka was about to prosper.
The beast that lowed at Mthonjanent,
And all the ridges heard its wailing,
It was heard by Dunjwa of the yengwenikraal,
It was heard by Mangecongeza of Khall's kraal
45 Fire off the long dry grass, son of Njokwane;
Fire of the long grass of scorching force.
That burmed the owls on the Dlebe hill.
And eventually those on Mabedlana also burned.
He who travelled across to Ndima and Mgovu,
50 And women who were with child gave birth easily;
The newly planted crops they left still short,
The seed they left amongst the maize-stalks,
The old women were left in the abandoned sites,
The old men were left along the tracks,
55 The roots of the trees looked up at the sky,
He who reached the top of the Bhuzane Mountain,
He came across a long line off buch.
He passed by Mcombo as the cattle were leaving
He whose routes they inquired from Dunjwa,
60 Whereas they should we asked Mbozancaboutthem,
As for him he was hurrying to go to Nomagaga,
A cook came and prevented him
He who is only the adults who will fee by themselves,
65 Dunjwa alone it has crushed
He who want and created temporary huts at the Thukela,
Where a leopard was ensnared in a trap.
He defeated Khungwayo by means of the Ngobizembes.
He who moved slowly along one ridge and returned on another,
70 Attacking Bhoyiya son of Mdakuda;
Nduba did not intend to go there
He was going to fetch Macingwane of the Ngonyameni kraal
He who moved slowly along a long ridge,
He traversed the bones of the people of Tayj
75 Who were cold going to Macingeane at Ngonyameni.
The people of Zihlandlo......
I criticized them, the evil-dowers,
They did not tell the king the ford,
80 Which was recently vacated by Ntube of the Majolas:
They made him cross at the one with hippos and crocodiles,
The hippos and crocodiles gaped with mouths wide-open
He who looked down towards Hadungela,
The cattle of Sihayo returned,
85 And then there followed those of Agfongosi,
That were milded by an hysterical person at Mavela's place,
He who was a pile of rocks at Nkandla.
Which was a shelter for the elephants in bad weather,
Which sheltered Phungashe of the Butheloziclan.
90 And Zihllandlo of the Mkhize clan,
And the elephants ran away from the place;
Feather that bobbed down on the side of Nkanla,
Bobbing down always and devouring men.
He who panted up to the top of Nomangoi Mountain,
95 Going to give judgment in the contention at the Nyuswa's
They were not contending over castor-oil seeds in deserted sites,
They said just a moment, wait for the pigeons,
And he came and killed them both.
100 Pursuer of a pursued Zwide son of Langa,
Talking him from where the sun rises
And sending him to where it sets;
As for Zwide he folded his two little shoulders together.
105 It was then the elder was startled by the younger.
Fierce animal in the homes of people;
Wild animal that was in charge at Dibandlela's
He who dressed late was eventually overtaken,
He who puts on his fivery at the water's edge.
110. His things will be washed away.
Trickster, abstain from enemies, it is summer,
The grass is long, it will get the better of you.
Buffalo that stood glaring with a spear on the banks of the Nzimvubu
And the Pondos feared to come down to it:
115. You Gambushe and you Faku,
Do not stab him.
If you do stab him,
You will not be stabbing him,
You will then be stabbing him, Phunga and Mageba.
120. You will them be stabbing the unborn Ngqungqushe.
The attacker has long been attacking them:
He attacked Phunga she of the Buthelezi clan.
He attacked Sondaba of Mthanda as
He sat in council, He attacked Macingwaneat Ngonyameni.
125. He attacked Macingwame
Of the Mbathaclan,
He attacked Diadlama of the Majolas
He attacked Gambushe in Pondoland,
He attacked Faku in Pondoland.
130. The young viper grown as it sits,
Always in a great rage,
With a shield on its knees.
He who while devouring some devoured others,
And as he devoured other he
Devoured some more.
135. He who while devouring some devoured others,
And as he devoured others he devoured some more,
He who while devoured others
And as he devoured others he devoured some-more,
He who while devouring some devoured others,
140. And as he devoured others he devoured some more:
He who while devouring some devoured others,
And as he devoured other he devoured others
And as he devoured others he devoured Some more.
Painful stabber, they will exhort one another,
Those who are with the enemy and those who are at home.
145 He who is dark as the bile of a goat,
Butterfly of Phunga,
With colours in circle as if they had been painted on,
He who is hazy as the shadows of the mountains,
When it is dark the evil-doers move about,
150 The rival of Phunga and Mageba
Which looked at me until I got accustomed to it,
Powerful limbs, calf of a beast.
The kicking of this beast puzzled me,
It kicked the milker and left the one holding it.
155. Hawk that I saw descending from the hills of Mangcengeza,
And from those of Phungashe he disappeared;
They said 'Hawk, here he is, there ho is',
Whereas he was silent in the forest
Like the leopards and lions.
Shaka went and erected temporary huts.
160. between the Nsuze and the Thukela.
In the country of Nyanya
Son of Manzawane,
We ate up Mantondo son of Tayi,
to devoured Sihayo.
165 He who came dancing on the hillside of the Phuthies,
And overcame Msikazi among the Nclimoshes.
He met a long time oh haha-dedahs (ibis birds)
When he was going to destroy the
Foolish Pondos,
Shaka did not raid herds of cattle,
170. He raided hers of buck,
He who gets stift!
He who was cooked in the deep pot of Ntombazi,
He was cooked and got stiff.
le who goes about making fires
and leaving behind conflagrations.
175. Who when he who rubbed flareed like a fire
There was no longer a beast lowing
at little Ntombaz's
It was now lowing at our place at Bulawayo.
Our own bringer of poverty at Bulawayo.
Who made Zwides destitute by great strides.
180 The sky that rumbled, the sky of Mageba,
That thundered above Nomange Mountain.
It thundered behind the kraal at Kughobeken and struck
It look the shields of Maphela and the Mankayiya,
And the little melons of the Same paka were left on the vines.
185. He devoured Nomahlanjana son of Zwide of the Maphelas,
He ate up Nphepha son of Zwide of the Maphelas,
He killed Nombengula son of Zwide of the Maphelas,
He destroyed Dayingubo son of Zwide of the Maphelas.
He ate up Sonsukwana son of Zwide of the Maphelas;
190. He devoured the chief wife, daughter of Lubongo,
He ate up Mtimona son of Gaqa of the Maphelas,
He killed Npondo-phumelakwezinde of the Maphelas,
He devoured Sikloloba -singamabele of Zwide's people,
He ate up Sihla-mthini-munye of Zwide's people.
195 He devoured Sihla-mth ini-munye of Zwide' d people
He destroyed Nqwangube son of Lundayane,
He belonged to our side, having turned round his shield.
Return, Tricksters, indeed you have finished this matter,
As for Zwide, you have made him into a homeless criminal.
200 And now today you have done the same to the son.
The people of Zwide, Shaka, you have lept over them
Sikhunyana is a girl, he has married you,
He found you sitting in council in the cattle-fold at Nkandla,
Not knowing that your soldiers had a cross-questioning.
205 Bearer of the homed viper, they have beaten you!
Types of Epic Poetry
As already mentioned, there are two types of epic poetry - traditional or folk epic, and literary or written epic
Traditional
epic tells the tale of a man who has superhuman qualities that other
men do not have. These qualities are used for the benefit and
development of his people. Such an epic is a product of a non-literate
society. The poem is "narrated" or "performed" by a bard or a griot who
accompanies his rendition with music instruments. The bard, like most
oral poets, is conscious of his audience and he performs with deep sense
of public image (Finnegan 1981). When this poem is orally transmitted,
information passes from mouth to mouth and from generation to
generation. There are no specific authors for specific poems. Each poet
builds on and improves on the information that he has received about a
particular epic poem. In other words, the content does undergo some
changes from time to time. It could cat subjects that are heroic,
romantic or historic in nature.
Literary epic like the
traditional epic, tells the tale of a man who has superhuman qualities
which he uses for the development of his generation. It has similar
content with traditional epic. However, the poetry is in written form
because it is a product of a literate society. So the issue of
performance does not arise. It is different from traditional epic in
that it has specific authorship.
Both traditional and literary
epic poetry aim to please through the medium of word and the images that
are created through them (Okpewho 1979). The basic difference between
traditional and literary epic is in how they are transmitted and the
process that is involved in transmitting them.
Basic Requirements of an Epic Poem
In
whatever form and through whatever means epic poetry is transmitted,
there are certain basic requirements that are generally agreed upon for
it to be regarded as an epic. They are as follows:
Action
The
action should normally consist of deeds of great valour which would
require superhuman courage. It depends heavily on ancient legends and
depicts the adventurous exploits of some great warriors. The action
further tells of the nature, character and spirit of their national
heritage. In general, it reflects an age, a race, a civilization and a
culture through its hero's life. "Beowulf" involves the values of a
warrior society where there is mutual trust and respect between a
warrior and his lord.
The action of the traditional epic
stresses the conflict of the individual against his society or against
himself. Beowulf, the hero of "Beowulf" concerns himself with fate. He
tests his relationship with an unknown destiny by attempting to slay
mother-dragon, Grendel and later, Grendel's siblings. He is very much
aware that he either kills them or he gets killed by them. He is lucky
to kill the siblings but he is not as lucky when he challenges the
mother-dragon. Fate is against him so he is killed. In John Milton's
"Paradise Lost:, Satan's downfall also comes about by fate (line
116-119):
This downfall since by fate the strength of God
And this Empyreal substance cannot fail,
Since through experience of this great event
In Arms not worse, in foresight much advan't
Interaction between men and the supernatural forces
Supernatural
forces like gods, angels and demons interest themselves in the action
of the poem. They usually problems for the human characters in the poem.
It is this problem that the epic hero usually faces challenges and
conquers For example, Grendel, her mother, the dragon and the worm are
some of the supernatural forces Beowulf had to Contend with In "Paradise
Lost" all the characters that peopled the poem apart from Adam and Eve,
are supernatural forces God, Satan,
Beelzebub and the other
fallen angels. Similarly, in the African epic, for example, Clark
Bekederemo's "Ozidi" the supernatural forces are either directly engaged
or Ozidi seeks their support.
The Epic Hero
The hero is
a figure of imposing stature. When Beowulf the hero of "Beowulf"
appears with his party on the coast of Danes, he is immediately noticed
by the Danish coast guard who is attracted by his good looks: ("Beowulf"
line 247-257);
I have never laid eyes upon earl on earth
More stalwart or sturdy than one of your troop
A hero in armor, no hall-than he
Tricked out with weapons, unless looks believe him
And noble bearing.
He
is of national and universal significance in view of his great
historical and legendary relevance. The hero is like the spokesman and
saviour of his age and community. In other words, he embodies the mores
and the aspirations of his society. In the case of the hero of most
African epics, there is usually something mysterious about his birth and
his early youth. Sunjata is an example of this. He stayed seven years
in his mother's womb before he was born (lines 48-49). This advantage of
his supernatural conception puts him above his peers. For example, the
hero of "Sunjata" is the son of a king and also an emperor. When finally
born, it is during the dry season. The sky darkens, there is great
cloud with thunder rumbling and lightning flashing and strong wind
blowing. Rain starts and then stops and immediately, the sun appears, as
conveyed in the following lines:
Suddenly, the sky darkened and
great clouds coming from the east hid the sun, although it was during
dry season. Thunder began to rumble and swift lightning rent the clouds,
a few large drops of rain accompanied by a dull rattle of thunder burst
out of the east and lit up the whole sky as far as the west. Then the
rain stopped and the sun appeared and it was at this moment that a
midwife came out of Sogolon's house, ran to the antechamber and
announced to Nare Maghan that he was the father of a boy.
("Sunjata" IV, 13).
These
mysterious circumstances set the hero apart from the natural course of
life. This serves as a source of inspiration for the hero who sees
himself as possessing superhuman qualities. It serves as a source of awe
about the hero for other people who see him as possessing "storage"
qualities. His growth and development from childhood is usually
extraordinary. He appears too advanced, too serious for children of his
age. Sunjata could not associate with children of his age. When they are
playing, he is too serious to join them. Apart from this, he starts
walking (at the age of seven) as a result of his step-mother's cynical
comment about his inability to walk. On the same day he uproots a whole
baobab tree. In addition, he bends an iron rod made by his father's
blacksmith into a bow. Before the age of ten, he has become a master
hunter, a titled that is reserved only for men who have distinguished
themselves.
Setting
The setting of the poem is vast in
scope covering great nations, the world or the universe. In "Paradise
Lost", the setting covers the whole of heaven, hell and the earth.
Style
The
poem has a grand style of sustained elevation and grand simplicity. It
usually has sublimity of style and grandeur of content. There is
extraordinary richness of rhetorical elaboration, which alternates and,
at times, combines with the barest simple statements. In one of
Beowulf's speeches during his first meeting with Hrothgar, the King of
the Danes, he concludes his mission in his determination to come back
and challenge the monster thus:
But I shall show him soon now,
The strength and the courage of the Geats, their warfare.
Afterwards he will walk who may be
Glad to the mead, when the morning
Light of another day, the bright-clothed sun,
Shines from the south on the children of men.
The Epic Formulae
There are common devices and conventions which are employed in most epic poems. They include the following:
Theme
The
poem opens by stating the theme. In "Paradise Lost", the theme is man's
first obedience, fall and eventual restoration. This is declared in the
first lines of the poem:
Of man's First Disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal test
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe
With loss of Eden, till one greater man
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat.
Invocation
He implores the Muse to inspire and to instruct him. In "Paradise Lost" the poet calls on a muse in lines, 6-19, for example:
Sing, Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top...
I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song,
Instruct me for thou know'st;
in medias res
He
opens the narrative not from the very beginning but in the middle of
events. He later gives the necessary exposition in the latter portion of
the epic thereby filling the missing gap. Paradise Lost begins with
Satan and his legion of angels discussing their miserable fall into
Hell. This is obviously the middle of events. Apparently so many actions
had taken place before then - Satan had rebelled, had lured some angels
to his side, had ruined his relationship with God, lost his position in
heaven, and had been thrown out of heaven before the reader encounters
him and his cohort. The chaos accompanying their condemnation into the
burning lake and their confusion thereafter are also exempted at the
beginning of the poem. Similarly, Beowulf was in his early fifty's and
already had a record of great achievements at home and abroad as a great
warrior by the time the reader first encounters him.
Sporadic Wars
These
include catalogues of warriors, ships and armies. After the arrival of
Beowulf and his company, the poet describes the situation thus:
The boat lay fixed, rested on the rope,
Boar-images shone, over check-guards
Gold-adomed gleaning and fire-hardened...
The warriors hastened, marched together...
Epic Oration
The
poem gives extended formal speeches by the main characters. For
example, in introducing himself in the presence of the people of Heorot,
Beowulf states his mission in this formal speech before the gathering
of people. (C.W. Kennedy, Beowulf 1978, lines 407-421).
Hail! King Hrothgar! I am Hygelac's thane,
Hygelac's Kingsman. Many a deed
Of honour and daring I've done in my youth.
This business of Grendel was brought to my ears
On my native soil. The seafarers say,
This best of buildings, this boasted ball,
Stands dark and deserted when sun is set,
When darkening shadows gather with dusk.
The best of my people, prudent and brave,
Urged me, King Hrogthar, to seek you out;
They had in remembrance my courage and might.
Many had seen me come safe from the conflict,
Bloody from battle; five foes I bound
Of the giant kindred, and crushed their clan.
Hard-driven in danger and darkness of night
I slew the nicors that swam the sea,
Avenged the woe they had caused the Weders.
And ended their evil-they needed the lesson!
And now with Grendel, the fearful fiend,
Single-handed I'll settle the strife!
Prince of the Danes, protector of Scyldings,
Lord of nations, and leader of men,
I beg one favor-refuse me not,
Since I come thus faring from far-off lands-
That I may alone with my royal earls,
With this hardy company, cleanse hart-hall.
Epic Simile
Epic
simile is a simile of great length and ramification which functions as a
separate ornament within the poem Onsby 1992). Its function in the poem
is lyrical rather than narrative.
Unlike the straightforward
simple simile, it suspends the action of the poem by causing a
digression from it. In other words, rather than advance the action, it
suspends it. These digressions are largely responsible for the unusual
length of the epic. A good example is found in "Paradise Lost" when
Satan and all his legion of angels, out of confusion and shock, talk of
how to overcome their calamity. They talk of what reinforcement they may
gain from hope. The poet suspends the actions of this scene but comes
in with an extensive comparison between Satan and Leviathan the whale in
the poem. Satan is said to be as huge in length as the whale (Lines
192-209).
Thus Satan talking to his nearest mate (4)
With head uplift above the wave, and Eyes
That sparkling blaz'd, his other Parts besides
Prince on the flood, extended long and large
Lay floating many a road, in bulk as huge.
As whom the fables name of the monstrous size,
Titanian, or Earth born, that warr 'd on Jove,
Briaries or Typhon, whom the Den
By ancient Tarsus held, or that sea-beast
Created hugest that swim th 'Ocean stream.
Him haply slumbering on the Norway foam.
The Pilot of some small night-founder 'd skiff,
Deeming some Island, of, as sea-men tell,
With fixed Anchor in his scaly rind
Moors by his side under the lee, while Night
Invests the sea, and wished Morn delays:
So stretch out huge in length the Arch-fiend lay.
But
from line 242 the poet resumes the discussion of Satan and his angels
on their discovery of the truth, and their dismay about their situation.
The Structure of an Epic
An epic, as I have mentioned
earlier, is a very long narrative poem. Usually, the traditional (oral)
epic may take about seven days for the bard or griot to perform. The
performance is unique in many ways. For examples, the structure of a
traditional epic is fore grounded in the multiplication of singularized
units of episodes in the daily celebration lasting about seven days.
Similarly,
a standard literary epic has about twelve volumes, cantos or books. As
it is the case with oral epics, the plot-structure of a standard
literary epic is episodic. In other words, an epic poem whether oral or
written beginning, middle and an end. In addition, the copious use of
digressions, suspense, rhetoric, repetitions, and a loose plot because
it is arranged in episodes. Each episode is a complete narrative
experience with a allusions, particularly, the epic simile, is largely
responsible for the unusual length of the epic.
The Example of John Milton: Paradise Lost
John
Milton's "Paradise Lost" readily provides a good example of a literary
epic. Even though it is a Renaissance protestant epic, it is unique in
many ways as a very successful Christian epic. Therefore, I shall
briefly discuss its theme and some aspects of the technique employed by
the poet shortly.
The thematic preoccupation of an epic, as I
have mentioned earlier, is usually of great importance. Even though most
epics have their subjects revolving around such issues as destruction
of cities, or the foundation of an empire, the subject of paradise Lost
revolves round the fate of man and the world, the revolution in heaven
and on earth, the rebellion of Satan and his cohorts against God and the
overthrow of their host and punishment or their crime, John Milton
clearly states his mission and theme in the introduction: "And justify
the ways of God to Men" (line 26). This he achieves by showing God's
efforts following the defeat of Satan and his host and their expulsion
from Heaven. The efforts include the creation of a new race of
reasonable creatures and their original state of happiness and
innocence, their immorality, all of which they forfeit because of the
sin of disobedience, their final restoration to hope and peace through
Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
Milton himself, a young and
uncompromising gentleman, is determinedly moralistic in Paradise Lost.
Like any standard epic, the book involves issues that directly bring
humanity and the supernatural together. It celebrates the heroic hinged
partly on greatness and partly on rare virtues. The question then
arises: whose heroism does Milton celebrate in Paradise Lost - Satan,
man (Adam) or Jesus? This question tops the list of the controversies
that this poem has generated.
John Dryden has described John
Milton as being "of the devil's party without knowing it". This position
is justifiable, considering that Milton is more comfortable celebrating
the daring and promethean spirit of Satan, his exploits and doggedness.
Given the romantic spirit and thrust which Lord Byron readily
recognizes as the propelling force that informed the actions of
Satan/Lucifer, it is correct to say that Satan vehemently opposes and
rejects the monopolist status quo, that he remains defiant,
uncompromising, promethean in the face of defeat, and as a true leader
of the fallen angels, leads where the action is hottest, and being fully
aware of the consequences of his actions, takes full responsibilities
for the same, all quality him as a romantic hero or Byronic hero.
In
the context of Milton's vision and thematic concern, a romantic hero is
not good enough. Therefore, Satan, put in a clearer perspective, is a
tragic figure. Despite his qualities, like Chinua Achebe's Okonkwo in
his novel Things Fall Apart, Satan/Lucifer remains stubbon, adamant, and
unrepentant. His spirit is undistilled, his being turned into a serpent
that must crawl and forever eat ashes; all these have nothing noble in
it. There is nothing about Lucifer and, or his cohorts that is worth
emulating. Therefore, he qualifies better as a tragic figure.
Man
(Adam) is believed by some critics to be the hero of Paradise Lost. A
critical study of this character, Adam, will help in this regard. Adam,
in the beginning, is in a perfect state: immortal, he is the King of the
new world. A temporary separation of his wife, Eve, from his
"protective side" at the instance and insistence of the latter leads to
her eating of the "forbidden fruit". Adam also made a deliberate choice
of the path of destruction by taking the forbidden fruit. Thc full
implication of his action qualifies him as a romantic hero. However, as
the plot unfolds further, Adam undergoes a distillation of spirit, he
comes thoroughly purged and repentant.
He is as repentant and
purged as Sophocles' King Oedipus or Ola Rotimi's King Odewale. Adam
(Man) in the context of Milton's artistic vision is a tragic hero, but
certainly not the hero in Paradise Lost.
Is Jesus the hero? If
we cast our mind back to Milton's thematic concern: "And justify the
ways of God to men", it is obvious that Jesus Christ's choice to leave
His glorious throne and His choice to give Himself up as the scape-goat
qualifies the boundless love that God has for mankind. Jesus, in effect
becomes the carrier-hero and trough His death and resurrection He
defeats Death and restores Man to his original state of immortality and
perfection. Jesus, therefore, becomes the hope and peace of those who
care to accept Him as God's medium of reconciliation. As a Christian
epic, Jesus Christ is the hero in Paradise Lost. In the context of
Milton's vision, therefore, the poet has been able to "justify the ways
of God to men".
Hints on Milton's Technique
John Milton
is fond of the use of apposition. In this case, he introduces a new
dimension through the use of semi and lull colon to emphasize cause and
effect, e. g
"She eat:
Earth felt the wound" IX, 782-2
Original metaphors are given demonstrative roles for effect, thereby giving both literal and metaphoric references; e.g
“This intellectual good" meaning "Fruit/Death".
Milton
uses parallelism to achieve a balance between abstract and concrete
terms, to balance opposites and to equates time and space e.g.,
“Day/cloud”.
The poet uses copula (word joining the subject and
predicate) for equating abstractions in didactic statements not only for
startling metaphors but for throwing doubt on identities in a way that
often reflects real uncertainty and achieves meditative or ironic
effects.
Through his use of simple reference (SR), Milton avoids
vagueness and deliberately creates double Iiteral meanings by his use
of "the" and "my"
"the faithful side...my conduct"
There
is the use of make-link with its strong active element that suspends
disbelief for vivid expression such as "flight/wheel", "heaven/hell". At
times, the link is combined with others to suggest several things, even
ambiguously, e.g.:
“The rest, we live,”
Law to our selves" (X, 653-4)
Milton
also makes use of the genitive link. That is, the use of "of" and the
"possessive", which he uses for all relationships instead of the common
apostrophe and "S" ('S), e.g.
“Nature...her seat”
…..words…... gave signs of woe" (1X, 782-3).
Milton’s
use of adjectives is very flexible and varied. The adjectives are
employed to create sensory effects such as taste, pain, light and dark.
They are also employed to humanized the divine and divinize the human.
The
poet’s choice of sentence structure is Latinate; this explains the
unusual placement of the subject and sentence. It is an apparent
imposition of the Latin liberal sentence structure, e.g, "Adam, by sad
experiment I know" X, 967.
We have examples the use of epic
simile which constitute the major source of digression in paradise Lost,
e.g (0, 198-209 see Pg. 41.)
The issue of technique may remain
inexhaustive in our discussion on paradise lost. What we have done is
to bring out units that tend to confirm this work as a standard “modern”
epic.
Conclusion
We have attempted, so far, to explore
the epic poetry tradition in general and identify its basic
characteristics in particular. However, it is instructive to note that
not all epic poems satisfy all the characteristics we have considered
here. Where this is the case, it does not mean that such a work is not
an epic. It is our hope that our discussion so far will serve as a guide
to any student who wishes to identify the basic characteristics of an
epic poem in works that we have not examined in this study.
